"All empire is no more than power in trust."
This blog written as a task assigned by the Head of the Department of English (MKBU), Prof. and Dr. Dilip Barad Sir. Here is the link to the professor's blog for background reading:Click here
Basic introduction:
John Dryden (1631–1700), England’s first official Poet Laureate, was the leading literary figure of the Restoration period. He was well-known for his sharp critical skills, poetic mastery, and his ability to use literature to influence political views. His famous political satire Absalom and Achitophel (1681) was written during the Exclusion Crisis, a time when the Whigs, led by the Earl of Shaftesbury, tried to prevent the Catholic James, Duke of York, from succeeding his brother, King Charles II. They wanted to promote Charles’s illegitimate but Protestant son, the Duke of Monmouth. Dryden, a firm supporter of monarchy and hereditary succession, used the Bible story of King David and his rebellious son Absalom as a powerful metaphor for the political struggles of his time. In his poem, Charles II is like King David patient and rightful; Monmouth is Absalom, the favored but illegitimate son who is misled; and Shaftesbury is Achitophel, a cunning advisor who stirs rebellion.
The poem begins by showing David’s loving and forgiving nature and Absalom’s charm and popularity, but soon shifts to expose Achitophel’s treachery. By mixing the Bible story with current events, Dryden turns a political conflict into a universal lesson about loyalty, rebellion, and divine order. His clear royalist view warns against breaking the lawful line of succession, paints Shaftesbury as a traitor, and shows Monmouth’s ambitions as misguided, not evil. So, Absalom and Achitophel is both a brilliant piece of literature and a strong defense of monarchy, showing Dryden’s skill at blending art and politics.
If you want to read the original poem:Click here
Mind Map of Absalom and Achitophel: Click Here
Historical Context:
Restoration Era and Charles II’s Reign:
After Oliver Cromwell’s rule ended, the monarchy was restored in 1660 with Charles II as king. His reign was marked by both cultural growth and political problems. Charles II was known for his extravagant court and many illegitimate children, especially James Scott, Duke of Monmouth. Since Charles had no legitimate heir and his brother James was a Catholic, a succession crisis arose.
The Popish Plot of 1678:
A false conspiracy called the Popish Plot claimed Catholics planned to kill Charles II and put James on the throne. Though it was later proven fake, it caused widespread anti-Catholic fear, strengthening the Whig party who wanted to exclude James. Dryden satirizes this atmosphere by showing Shaftesbury (Achitophel) as a manipulative schemer exploiting fears for political gain.
The Exclusion Crisis (1679-1681):
Parliament debated bills to bar James from the throne due to his Catholicism. The Whigs supported this and promoted Monmouth as a Protestant alternative, while the Tories defended hereditary rights. Dryden’s poem reflects this, portraying Monmouth (Absalom) as misled into rebellion by Shaftesbury (Achitophel). Dryden warns that interfering with succession causes chaos.
Shaftesbury’s Role:
Shaftesbury was a clever, ambitious politician leading the Exclusion effort. Dryden paints him as a traitor (Achitophel) corrupting Monmouth and stirring rebellion, blaming him for political unrest rather than Monmouth.
Monmouth Rebellion (1685):
Though the poem was written in 1681, it foreshadowed Monmouth’s failed rebellion after Charles II’s death. Monmouth tried to claim the throne but was defeated and executed, confirming Dryden’s warnings against rebellion and unlawful claims.
•Dryden’s Political Standpoint:
Dryden wrote the poem to defend the divine right of kings and hereditary monarchy. He supports Charles II and James as rightful rulers while criticizing Shaftesbury’s treachery. Monmouth is shown sympathetically as misguided, not evil. The poem serves as both royalist propaganda and a moral lesson on the dangers of political factionalism.
Second Part of Absalom and Achitophel (1682):
The second part of the satirical poem "Absalom and Achitophel," released in 1682, was a collaboration between John Dryden and Nahum Tate. While Tate wrote the majority of the poem, continuing the political allegory of the Exclusion Crisis, it is Dryden's contribution that is most memorable.
Dryden wrote about 200 lines, using the opportunity to savagely mock his literary and political rivals. His most famous targets were Thomas Shadwell, portrayed as the dull and vain "Og," and Elkanah Settle, depicted as the spiteful and incompetent "Doeg." These sections, celebrated for their sharp wit and powerful characterizations, are considered the highlight of the work and are still studied today as prime examples of Restoration satire.
In essence, while Tate carried the plot forward, Dryden's brief but brilliant additions are what elevated the poem and ensured its lasting literary significance.
Dryden's political motivation:
Dryden's political stance in Absalom and Achitophel was a calculated defense of the monarchy and its established order. He argued that the Whigs' populist movement, fueled by the hysteria of the Popish Plot, was a dangerous step toward chaos and civil war. By portraying the Whig leader, the Earl of Shaftesbury, as the scheming Achitophel, Dryden depicted him not as a political reformer but as a treacherous and cunning figure manipulating the masses for his own gain. The poem's central message was that stability and peace relied on an unbroken line of succession, a principle threatened by the Whigs' attempt to subvert the rightful heir. Dryden's work thus served as a warning to his readers, urging them to reject radicalism and uphold the divinely sanctioned authority of the crown.
Key Themes:
1.Politics, Allegory, and Satire
Absalom and Achitophel is a brilliant blend of political allegory and satire. Dryden uses the biblical story of Absalom’s rebellion against King David to allegorize the Exclusion Crisis, where the Whigs, led by the Earl of Shaftesbury, tried to prevent the Catholic James, Duke of York, from inheriting the throne. The poem satirizes key political figures by representing them as biblical characters King Charles II as the wise King David, the Duke of Monmouth as the misguided Absalom, and Shaftesbury as the cunning Achitophel. This allegorical framework allowed Dryden to defend the monarchy and expose his enemies' political opportunism with sharp wit.
2. Religion and the Divine Right of Kings
Dryden's poem strongly advocates for the divine right of kings, the belief that a monarch’s authority is granted by God. By portraying Charles II as King David, a figure chosen by God, Dryden frames the struggle over succession as a matter of religious sanctity rather than just political debate. He argues that any challenge to the legitimate line of succession is not just a political act but sacrilege, a rebellion against God's will. This theme serves to counter the anti-Catholic fears of the time by grounding the monarchy in a sacred, divinely ordained order.
3. Power and Ambition
The poem explores the corrupting nature of unchecked ambition. Absalom (Monmouth) is a tragic figure, manipulated by his vanity and the flattery of others, showing how even a beloved figure can be misled into rebellion. Achitophel (Shaftesbury) embodies ambition at its most destructive, seeking personal power by destabilizing the kingdom. Dryden uses their downfall as a cautionary tale, warning that ambition, when it disregards morality and legitimate authority, inevitably leads to chaos and ruin for both the individual and the state.
•Why it is verse satire?
Dryden's "Absalom and Achitophel" isn't just a poem; it's a political weapon cloaked in polished verse. Its genius lies in how it uses the conventions of poetry to deliver a searing political message, making it a definitive example of verse satire. Here's a breakdown of the key techniques Dryden employs:
1. The Power of the Heroic Couplet
Dryden's choice of the heroic couplet (rhyming lines of iambic pentameter) is the first and most important step. This form was the gold standard of serious poetry in the Restoration era, used for epic narratives and grand ideas. Dryden’s genius was to take this dignified, elevated style and use it to mock the messy, treacherous world of politics. The formal, balanced structure of the couplet makes his insults sound even sharper and more definitive, like a judicial verdict.
Example: When Dryden describes Shaftesbury (Achitophel), he uses this lofty form to deliver a cutting insult:
"A daring pilot in extremity; / Pleased with the danger when the waves went high."
This sounds noble, but it's pure sarcasm. Dryden is suggesting that Shaftesbury is a reckless opportunist who thrives on chaos, not a wise leader. The polished verse makes the political attack sting all the more.
2. Allegory as a Disguise
Dryden's use of biblical allegory is the core of his satirical strategy. Instead of directly attacking powerful figures, which was dangerous, he created a parallel universe. Charles II became King David, a wise and long-suffering monarch. The Duke of Monmouth became Absalom, a handsome but misguided son. And the Earl of Shaftesbury became Achitophel, a wicked, scheming counselor. This disguise allowed Dryden to criticize his enemies freely while adding a moral and religious weight to his argument. By portraying them as biblical villains, he was not just calling them political opponents but traitors to divine order.
Example: He calls Achitophel "a bold, bad man." This simple phrase, placed in the context of a biblical tale of rebellion against a righteous king, is far more damning than a direct political attack.
3. Irony and Caricature
Dryden’s satire thrives on irony and exaggerated caricature. He often praises a character in a way that is actually a profound insult. He inflates their traits their beauty, their wit, their supposed wisdom to reveal a deeper flaw or moral emptiness.
Example: His description of Monmouth (Absalom) is a masterstroke of ironic praise:
"A man so various, that he seemed to be / Not one, but all mankind’s epitome."
On the surface, this sounds like a compliment, celebrating Monmouth's versatility. But read satirically, it reveals a man who lacks a stable, consistent character and is easily swayed by flattery. This "variety" is not a strength but a sign of weakness and unreliability.
The allegorical framework in Absalom and Achitophel :
•What is Biblical Allegory?
A biblical allegory is when a writer takes stories or characters from the Bible and uses them as symbols to reflect real people, political events, or moral lessons. It works on two levels: the literal (biblical story) and the symbolic (contemporary meaning).
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